Which of the Following Is True of the Work Roles in Early Colonial Families of the United States?

The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional color for Imperial British dominions on maps

The British Empire is the most extensive empire in globe history and for a time was the foremost global power. Information technology was a product of the European age of discovery, which began with the global maritime explorations of Portugal and Spain in the late fifteenth century.

By 1921, the British Empire ruled a population of between 470 and 570 1000000 people, approximately one-quarter of the world'southward population. It covered nearly 14.iii million foursquare miles (more than than 37 million square kilometers), near a quarter of World's total land area. Though it has now mostly evolved into the Democracy of Nations, British influence remains strong throughout the world: in economic do, legal and governmental systems, sports (such equally cricket and football game), and the English language itself.

Did you lot know?

The British Empire was known as "the empire on which the lord's day never sets"

The British Empire was, at once, referred to every bit "the empire on which the sunday never sets" (a phrase previously used to describe the Spanish Empire and afterwards to American influence in the world) because the empire'southward span across the world ensured that the dominicus was always shining on at to the lowest degree ane of its numerous colonies. On the one paw, the British adult a sense of their own destiny and moral responsibility in the world, assertive that many of her colonial subjects required guidance, that it was British rule that prevented anarchy and chaos. Positively, the education system sponsored by the British promulgated an awareness of such values as freedom, human being dignity, equality—even though those taught frequently observed that their colonial masters did not exercise what they preached. Negatively, peoples and resources were exploited at Great britain's advantage and more often than not at the cost of her overseas possessions.

Contents

• 1 Etymology
• 2 Background: The English Empire
  • 2.1 Growth of the overseas empire
  • 2.ii Henry Eight and the rising of the Imperial Navy
  • 2.3 Ireland
  • 2.four The Elizabethan era
  • 2.5 The Stuart era
  • two.6 Scottish role
• three Colonization
• 4 Gratis merchandise and "informal empire"
• 5 British East India Company
  • v.one Expansion
  • 5.2 Collapse
• 6 Breakup of Pax Britannica
• 7 Uk and the New Imperialism
  • 7.1 British colonial policy
• eight Britain and the scramble for Africa
• 9 Abode dominion in white-settler colonies
• 10 The touch of the First Globe War
  • 10.1 The finish of British rule in Ireland
• 11 Decolonization and decline
• 12 Legacy
• 13 See also
• 14 Notes
• fifteen References
  • xv.i Overviews
  • 15.2 Specialized scholarly studies
• sixteen External links
• 17 Credits

Many British idea their ascendancy providential, office of the divine programme. Anyone who believes that history is not merely a series of accidents might well come across God's hand behind the cosmos of an empire that, despite all the ills of an royal system imposed on unwilling subjects, also left a cultural, literary, legal and political legacy that binds people of dissimilar religions and races together.

Etymology

The term "British Empire" was ofttimes used later on 1685; for example, in John Oldmixon's book The British Empire in America, Containing the History of the Discovery, Settlement, Progress and Present State of All the British Colonies, on the Continent and Islands of America (London, 1708).^[1]

Background: The English Empire

Growth of the overseas empire

Statue of John Cabot in Newfoundland, site of England'south start overseas colony

The origin of the British Empire as territorial expansion across the shores of Europe lies in the pioneering maritime policies of King Henry VII, who reigned 1485 to 1509. Edifice on commercial links in the wool trade promoted during the reign of King Richard Iii of England, Henry established the modern English merchant marine system, which greatly expanded English shipbuilding and seafaring. The merchant fleet too supplied the basis for the mercantile institutions that would play such a crucial role in later British imperial ventures, such every bit the Massachusetts Bay Visitor and the British Eastward Republic of india Company chartered by Henry's 1000-daughter, Elizabeth I. Henry'due south financial reforms made the English Exchequer solvent, which helped to underwrite the development of the Merchant Marine. Henry as well ordered construction of the first English dry dock at Portsmouth, and made improvements to England'southward small Imperial Navy. Additionally, he sponsored the voyages of the Italian mariner John Cabot in 1496 and 1497 that established England's first overseas colony—a line-fishing settlement—in Newfoundland, which Cabot claimed on behalf of Henry.

Henry 8 and the ascent of the Majestic Navy

King Henry 8 founded the mod English navy (though the plans to practise so were put into movement during his father's reign), more than than tripling the number of warships and constructing the get-go large vessels with heavy, long-range guns. He initiated the Navy's formal, centralized administrative appliance, built new docks, and constructed the network of beacons and lighthouses that made coastal navigation much easier for English and foreign merchant sailors. Henry established the munitions-based Royal Navy that was able to concord off the Spanish Armada in 1588.

Ireland

The starting time substantial achievements of the colonial empire stem from the Act for Kingly Title, passed past the Irish parliament in 1541. This statute converted Republic of ireland from a lordship under the say-so of the English crown to a kingdom in its ain right. Information technology was the starting point for the Tudor re-conquest of Ireland.

By 1550 a committed policy of colonization of the country had been adopted, which culminated in the Plantation of Ulster in 1610, following the Nine Years War (1595-1603). These plantations would serve as templates for the empire. Several people involved in these projects also had a hand in the early colonization of Northward America, including Humphrey Walter Raleigh and Francis Drake. The Plantations were large tracts of land granted to English and Scottish settlers, many of whom enjoyed newly created titles.

The Elizabethan era

Defeat of the Spanish Fleet, by Philippe-Jacques de Loutherbourg (1796)

During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe in the years 1577 to 1580, fleeing from the Spanish, only the 2nd to reach this feat later on Ferdinand Magellan's expedition.

In 1579 Drake landed somewhere in northern California and claimed what he named Nova Albion for the English Crown (Albion is an aboriginal proper name for England or Britain), though the claim was not followed by settlement. Subsequent maps spell out Nova Albion to the north of all New Espana. England's interests outside Europe now grew steadily, promoted by John Dee (1527-1609), who coined the phrase "British Empire." An expert in navigation, he was visited by many of the early English explorers before and after their expeditions. He was a Welshman, and his use of the term "British" fitted with the Welsh origins of Elizabeth'south Tudor family unit, although his conception of empire was derived from Dante Alighieri's volume Monarchia.

Sir Humphrey Gilbert (1537-1583) followed on Cabot's original claim when he sailed to Newfoundland in 1583 and declared it an English language colony on August five at St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador. Sir Walter Raleigh organized the offset colony in Virginia in 1587 at Roanoke Island. Both Gilbert'southward Newfoundland settlement and the Roanoke colony were short-lived, however, and had to be abandoned due to food shortages, severe weather, shipwrecks, and hostile encounters with indigenous tribes on the American continent.

The Elizabethan era built on the past century's imperial foundations by expanding Henry VIII's navy, promoting Atlantic exploration by English language sailors, and farther encouraging maritime trade peculiarly with the netherlands and the Hanseatic League, a Baltic trading consortium. The nearly twenty twelvemonth Anglo-Spanish State of war (1585-1604), which started well for England with the sack of Cadiz and the repulse of the Spanish Armada, soon turned Kingdom of spain's way with a number of serious defeats which sent the Royal Navy into refuse and allowed Spain to retain effective command of the Atlantic sea lanes, disappointment English hopes of establishing colonies in North America. However it did give English sailors and shipbuilders vital experience. Rivalry betwixt the British, the Dutch and the Castilian reflected both commercial and territorial competition only besides the Protestant-Catholic dissever.

The Stuart era

In 1604, King James I of England negotiated the Treaty of London, ending hostilities with Kingdom of spain, and the first permanent English settlement followed in 1607 at Jamestown, Virginia. During the next three centuries, England extended its influence overseas and consolidated its political development at domicile. In 1707, under the Acts of Union, the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland were united in Westminster, London, as the Parliament of Great United kingdom.

Scottish office

There were several pre-matrimony attempts at creating a Scottish Overseas Empire, with various Scottish settlements in North and South America. The most famous of these was the disastrous Darien scheme which attempted to establish a settlement colony and trading mail in Panama to foster merchandise between Scotland and the Far East.

After union many Scots, peculiarly in Canada, Jamaica, Republic of india, Australia and New Zealand, took upwardly posts every bit administrators, doctors, lawyers and teachers. Progressions in Scotland itself during the Scottish enlightenment led to advancements throughout the empire. Scots settled across the Empire as it developed and built up their ain communities such as Dunedin in New Zealand. Mainly Calvinist, the Scots had a strong work ethic which was accompanied past conventionalities in philanthropy equally a religious duty, all of which impacted on the education arrangement that was developed throughout the empire.

Colonization

Jamestown, nether the leadership of Captain John Smith (1580-1631), overcame the severe privations of the winter in 1607 to found England'southward first permanent overseas settlement. The empire thus took shape during the early seventeenth century, with the English settlement of the thirteen colonies of Due north America, which would afterwards become the original United States as well as Canada's Atlantic provinces, and the colonization of the smaller islands of the Caribbean such as Jamaica and Barbados.

The sugar-producing colonies of the Caribbean, where slavery became the ground of the economy, were at kickoff England's virtually important and lucrative colonies. The American colonies provided tobacco, cotton, and rice in the S and naval materiel (armed forces hardware) and furs in the Due north were less financially successful, simply had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far larger numbers of English emigrants.

The Decease of General Wolfe by Benjamin West

England'southward American empire was slowly expanded by war and colonization, England gaining control of New Amsterdam (later New York) via negotiations following the Second Anglo-Dutch War. The growing American colonies pressed ever westward in search of new agronomical lands.

During the 7 Years' War the British defeated the French at the Plains of Abraham and captured all of New France in 1760, giving Britain control over the greater part of North America.

Later, settlement of Australia (starting with penal colonies from 1788) and New Zealand (under the crown from 1840) created a major zone of British migration. The unabridged Australian continent was claimed for United kingdom when Matthew Flinders (1774-1814) proved New Kingdom of the netherlands and New South Wales to be a single land mass past completing a circumnavigation of it in 1803. The colonies later on became self-governing colonies and became assisting exporters of wool and golden.

Free merchandise and "informal empire"

Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown (John Trumbull, 1797). The loss of the American colonies marked the cease of the "first British Empire."

The old British colonial arrangement began to decline in the eighteenth century. During the long flow of unbroken Whig dominance of domestic political life (1714–1762), the empire became less of import and less well-regarded, until an ill-blighted attempt (largely involving taxes, monopolies, and zoning) to reverse the resulting "salutary neglect" (or "benign neglect") provoked the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), depriving the empire of its near populous colonies.

The flow is sometimes referred to as the end of the "outset British Empire," indicating the shift of British expansion from the Americas in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to the "second British Empire" in Asia and afterward besides Africa from the eighteenth century. The loss of the Thirteen Colonies showed that colonies were not necessarily particularly beneficial in economic terms, since Uk could still profit from trade with the ex-colonies without having to pay for their defence force and administration.

Mercantilism, the economical doctrine of competition between nations for a finite amount of wealth which had characterized the offset period of colonial expansion, now gave way in U.k. and elsewhere to the laissez-faire economic classical liberalism of Adam Smith and successors like Richard Cobden (1804-1865) a manufacturer, politician and anti-regulationist.

The lesson of Britain'due south North American loss—that trade might be profitable in the absence of colonial rule—contributed to the extension in the 1840s and 1850s of self-governing colony status to white settler colonies in Canada and Australasia whose British or European inhabitants were seen equally outposts of the "female parent country." Republic of ireland was treated differently considering of its geographic proximity, and incorporated into the Great britain of Britain and Ireland in 1801; due largely to the touch on of the Irish Rebellion of 1798 against British dominion.

During this period, Britain besides outlawed the slave trade (1807) and soon began enforcing this principle on other nations. By the mid-nineteenth-century Great britain had largely eradicated the earth slave trade. Slavery itself was abolished in the British colonies in 1834, though the phenomenon of indentured labor retained much of its oppressive character until 1920.

The end of the old colonial and slave systems was accompanied by the adoption of free merchandise, culminating in the repeal of the Corn Laws and Navigation Acts (regulatory measures) in the 1840s. Free trade opened the British market to unfettered contest, stimulating reciprocal activeness by other countries during the heart quarters of the nineteenth century.

The Battle of Waterloo marked the finish of the Napoleonic Wars and the beginning of the Pax Britannica

Some debate that the rising of free trade simply reflected United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland'southward economical position and was unconnected with any true philosophical conviction. Despite the earlier loss of 13 of Britain's North American colonies, the final defeat in Europe of Napoleonic France in 1815 left Britain the most successful international power. While the Industrial Revolution at home gave United kingdom an unrivaled economic leadership, the Regal Navy dominated the seas. The distraction of rival powers by European matters enabled Britain to pursue a stage of expansion of its economic and political influence through "informal empire" underpinned by costless trade and strategic pre-eminence.

Between the Congress of Vienna of 1815 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Great britain was the world's sole industrialized power, with over thirty percent of the global industrial output in 1870. As the "workshop of the earth," United kingdom could produce finished manufactures so efficiently and cheaply that they could undersell comparable locally produced goods in foreign markets. Given stable political weather in particular overseas markets, United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland could prosper through costless trade solitary without having to resort to formal dominion. The Americas in item (especially in Argentina and the United States) were seen equally beingness well under the informal British trade empire due to Britain'south enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine, keeping other European nations from establishing formal dominion in the surface area. However, gratis merchandise appears to accept become royal policy, since Britain establish it convenient in many parts of the world to engage in trade and to negotiate trading rights without formally acquiring sovereignty, as in Red china, Iran, and the Gulf States. This went hand-in-hand with the belief that Britain now had a duty to police the world—that is, to protect merchandise. The term Pax Britannica was later on used to draw this catamenia, cartoon an obvious parallel with the Pax Romana. Behind this term lies the thought that this type of imperial system benefits the ruled likewise as the rulers.

British E India Company

The British East India Company was probably the most successful chapter in the British Empire's history equally it was responsible for the annexation of the Indian subcontinent, which would get the empire's largest source of acquirement, forth with the conquest of Hong Kong, Singapore, Ceylon, Malaya (which was also one of the largest sources of revenue) and other surrounding Asian countries, and was thus responsible for establishing United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland'southward Asian empire, the well-nigh of import component of the British Empire.

The British East Bharat Company originally began equally a joint-stock company of traders and investors based in Leadenhall Street, London, which was granted a Royal Charter by Elizabeth I in 1600, with the intent to favor trade privileges in Bharat. The Royal Charter effectively gave the newly created "Honourable East India Visitor" a monopoly on all trade with the East Indies. The visitor transformed from a commercial trading venture to one which almost ruled India as it acquired auxiliary governmental and military functions, along with a very big private army consisting of local Indian sepoys (soldiers), who were loyal to their British commanders and were probably the most important factor in Britain's Asian conquest. The British East India Visitor is regarded past some as the globe's first multinational corporation. Its territorial holdings were subsumed past the British crown in 1858, in the aftermath of the events variously referred to as the Sepoy Rebellion or the Indian Mutiny.

At that time there was no political entity chosen India. The Indian subcontinent was a patchwork of many kingdoms, and unlike in Europe at that place was no concept of the state every bit a political institution anywhere in this expanse of land. Information technology was indeed with the assimilation of British and western ideas that the concept of India as a single nation arose, much afterward in time. Thus, until the establishment of a single authoritative and gubernatorial entity by the British, the word India must be taken to stand for nothing more than than a catchall term for the peninsula south of the Himalayas.

The company too had interests forth the routes to India from Slap-up Britain. Equally early as 1620, the company attempted to lay claim to the Table Mount region in South Africa, afterwards it occupied and ruled the island of Saint Helena. The visitor also established Hong Kong and Singapore; and cultivated the production of tea in India. Other notable events in the company'south history were that information technology held Napoleon captive on Saint Helena, and made the fortune of Elihu Yale (1649-1721) the benefactor of Yale College, Boston. Its products were the basis of the Boston Tea Party in Colonial America.

In 1615 Sir Thomas Roe was instructed past James I to visit the Mughal emperor Jahangir (who ruled over well-nigh of the Indian subcontinent at the fourth dimension, along with parts of Afghanistan). The purpose of this mission was to arrange for a commercial treaty which would requite the company exclusive rights to reside and build factories in Surat and other areas. In render, the company offered to provide to the emperor appurtenances and rarities from the European market. This mission was highly successful and Jahangir sent a letter to the male monarch through Roe. Equally a event, The British East India Visitor plant itself completely dominant over the French, Dutch and Portuguese trading companies in the Indian subcontinent.

In 1634 the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan extended his hospitality to the English traders to the region of Bengal, which had the world's largest material industry at the time. In 1717 the Mughal Emperor at the fourth dimension completely waived customs duties for the trade, giving the company a decided commercial advantage in the Indian trade. With the company's big revenues, it raised its own military machine from the 1680s, mainly drawn from the ethnic local population, who were Indian sepoys nether the control of British officers.

Expansion

Robert Clive'due south victory at the Battle of Plassey established the company as a military as well as commercial power

The pass up of the Mughal Empire, which had separated into many smaller states controlled by local rulers who were oftentimes in disharmonize with one some other, allowed the visitor to expand its territories, which began in 1757 when the company came into conflict with the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj Ud Daulah. Under the leadership of Robert Clive, the visitor troops and their local allies defeated the Nawab on June 23, 1757, at the Battle of Plassey. The victory was mostly due to the treachery of the Nawab'south onetime army master, Mir Jafar. This victory, which resulted in the conquest of Bengal, established the British East Bharat Company as a military as well as a commercial ability, and marked the beginning of British dominion in India. The wealth gained from the Bengal treasury immune the company to significantly strengthen its armed forces might and as a result, extend its territories, acquisition most parts of India with the massive Indian regular army information technology had acquired.

The visitor fought many wars with local Indian rulers during its conquest of India, the most difficult being the four Anglo-Mysore Wars (between 1766 and 1799) against the South Indian Kingdom of Mysore, ruled by Hyder Ali, and after his son Tipu Sultan (The Tiger of Mysore). There were a number of other states which the visitor couldn't conquer through military might, mostly in the Northward, where the company's presence was always increasing amidst the internal conflict and dubious offers of protection confronting one some other. Coercive action, threats and diplomacy aided the company in preventing the local rulers from putting upwardly a united struggle against it. By the 1850s the company ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent, and as a result, began to function more than equally a nation and less as a trading business.

The company was also responsible for the illegal opium trade with China against the Qing Emperor'due south volition, which later led to the two Opium Wars (between 1834 and 1860). As a upshot of the visitor's victory in the First Opium State of war, it established Hong Kong. The company besides had a number of wars with other surrounding Asian countries, the most difficult probably being the three Anglo-Afghan Wars (between 1839 and 1919) against Transitional islamic state of afghanistan, which were mostly unsuccessful.

Plummet

The company's rule effectively came to an end exactly a century subsequently its victory at Plassey, when the anti-British rebellion broke out in 1857 which saw many of the Company's Indian sepoys begin an armed uprising against their British commanders after a period of political unrest triggered by a number of political events. I of the major factors was the company's introduction of the Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle. The paper cartridges containing the gunpowder were lubricated with fauna fat, and had to be bitten open earlier the pulverization was poured into the muzzle. Eating cow fat was forbidden for the Hindu soldiers, while pig fat was forbidden for the Muslim soldiers. Although it insisted that neither moo-cow fatty nor squealer fat was being used, the rumor persisted and many sepoys refused to follow their orders and utilize the weapons. Another factor was the execution of the Indian sepoy Mangal Pandey, who was hanged for attacking and injuring his British superiors, possibly out of insult for the introduction of the Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle or a number of other reasons. Combined with the policy of annexing Princely states this resulted in the rebellion, which eventually brought most the cease of the British East India Company's government in India, and instead led to 90 years of direct rule of the Indian subcontinent past Britain. The period of direct British dominion in India is known every bit the British Raj, when the regions now known as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar would collectively exist known as British India.

Breakdown of Pax Britannica

As the first country to industrialize, Britain had been able to draw on most of the accessible world for raw materials and markets. But this situation gradually deteriorated during the nineteenth century as other powers began to industrialize and sought to use the state to guarantee their markets and sources of supply. By the 1870s, British manufactures in the staple industries of the Industrial Revolution were beginning to experience real competition away.

Britannia became a symbol of Uk'due south imperial might

Industrialization progressed rapidly in Germany and the United States, allowing them to overtake the "sometime" British and French economies every bit world leader in some areas. By 1870 the High german material and metallic industries had surpassed those of Britain in organization and technical efficiency and usurped British manufactures in the domestic market place. By the turn of the century, the German metals and engineering industries would even be producing for the free trade market of the former "workshop of the world."

While invisible exports (cyberbanking, insurance and shipping services) kept United kingdom "out of the red," her share of world trade roughshod from a quarter in 1880 to a 6th in 1913. United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland was losing out not only in the markets of newly industrializing countries, but likewise confronting third-party competition in less-developed countries. Britain was fifty-fifty losing her erstwhile overwhelming dominance in trade with India, China, Latin America, or the coasts of Africa.

United kingdom'southward commercial difficulties deepened with the onset of the "Long Depression" of 1873-1896, a prolonged menstruum of price deflation punctuated by severe business downturns which added to pressure on governments to promote home industry, leading to the widespread abandonment of free trade among Europe'southward powers (Frg from 1879 and France from 1881).

The resulting limitation of both domestic markets and export opportunities led authorities and business organization leaders in Europe and later the U.Due south. to see the solution in sheltered overseas markets united to the home country backside imperial tariff barriers. New overseas subjects would provide export markets free of foreign contest, while supplying cheap raw materials. Although it continued to adhere to free trade until 1932, Britain joined the renewed scramble for formal empire rather than allow areas nether its influence to be seized by rivals.

Britain and the New Imperialism

The policy and ideology of European colonial expansion between the 1870s and the outbreak of World War I in 1914 are frequently characterized equally the "New Imperialism." The period is distinguished by an unprecedented pursuit of what has been termed "empire for empire's sake," aggressive competition for overseas territorial acquisitions and the emergence in colonizing countries on the footing of doctrines of racial superiority that denied the fitness of subjugated peoples for self-government.

During this menstruation, Europe'due south powers added nearly nine meg square miles (23,000,000 foursquare kilometers) to their overseas colonial possessions. As it was mostly unoccupied by the Western powers every bit tardily as the 1880s, Africa became the primary target of the "new" imperialist expansion, although conquest took identify as well in other areas—notably Southeast Asia and the East Asian seaboard, where Nippon joined the European powers' scramble for territory.

Britain's entry into the new imperial historic period is oftentimes dated to 1875, when the Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought the indebted Egyptian ruler Ismail's shareholding in the Suez Canal to secure control of this strategic waterway, a channel for shipping between Britain and India since its opening six years before under Emperor Napoleon III of French republic. Joint Anglo-French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882.

Fear of Russia's centuries-one-time southward expansion was a further cistron in British policy. In 1878 Britain took control of Cyprus as a base for action against a Russian attack on the Ottoman Empire, after having taken function in the Crimean War (1854–1856) and invading Afghanistan to forestall an increase in Russian influence there. Britain waged three encarmine and unsuccessful wars in Afghanistan as ferocious popular rebellions, invocations of jihad, and inscrutable terrain frustrated British objectives. The Kickoff Anglo-Afghan War led to one of the most disastrous defeats of the Victorian military, when an entire British army was wiped out by Russian-supplied Afghan Pashtun tribesmen during the 1842 retreat from Kabul. The Second Anglo-Afghan War led to the British debacle at Maiwand in 1880, the siege of Kabul, and British withdrawal into India. The Third Anglo-Afghan State of war of 1919 stoked a tribal uprising against the wearied British armed services on the heels of World War I and expelled the British permanently from the new Afghan state. The "Great Game"—espionage and counter-espionage especially with reference to Russia'due south interests in the region—in Inner Asia ended with a encarmine British trek against Tibet in 1903–1904. Rudyard Kipling's novel, Kim (1901) is prepare in the context of the "Bully Game," a term kickoff coined past Arthur Conolly (1807-1842), a British regular army and intelligence officer.

At the same time, some powerful industrial lobbies and government leaders in Britain, later exemplified by Joseph Chamberlain, came to view formal empire as necessary to arrest Britain's relative decline in world markets. During the 1890s, Britain adopted the new policy wholeheartedly, quickly emerging every bit the front-runner in the scramble for tropical African territories.

United kingdom's adoption of the New Imperialism may be seen as a quest for captive markets or fields for investment of surplus capital letter, or every bit a primarily strategic or pre-emptive attempt to protect existing trade links and to foreclose the absorption of overseas markets into the increasingly airtight imperial trading blocs of rival powers. The failure in the 1900s of Chamberlain'southward Tariff Reform entrada for Imperial protection illustrates the strength of gratuitous merchandise feeling even in the confront of loss of international market share. Historians have argued that Britain'due south adoption of the "New imperialism" was an upshot of her relative decline in the world, rather than of strength.

British colonial policy

British colonial policy was ever driven to a large extent by Britain's trading interests. While settler economies developed the infrastructure to support balanced development, some tropical African territories found themselves developed just as raw-material suppliers. British policies based on comparative advantage left many developing economies dangerously reliant on a single cash crop, with others exported to Britain or to overseas British settlements. A reliance upon the manipulation of conflict between indigenous, religious and racial identities in gild to keep subject field populations from uniting against the occupying power—the classic "divide and rule" strategy—left a legacy of partition and/or inter-communal difficulties in areas every bit diverse every bit Republic of ireland, India, Republic of zimbabwe, Sudan, and Uganda, though in all cases these societies were plagued with internal sectionalisation well before British rule. Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936), winner of the 1907 Noble Prize for Literature, in his 1899 verse form, "The White Man's Burden," expressed what many—especially during the reign of Queen Victoria—represented the raison d'etre of empire: that it was a moral responsibility to rule over people who were 'one-half-devil and half child' who therefore needed the subject, oversight and governance that but a superior race could provide. Some saw the task of Christianizing and civilizing imperial subjects as part and bundle of the same job. Victoria, though, was less keen on extensive missions, but in many parts of the empire evangelical colonial officers gave their full support to the missionaries in their areas.

United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland and the scramble for Africa

In 1875 the two most of import European holdings in Africa were French-controlled Algeria and Uk's Cape Colony. By 1914 only Federal democratic republic of ethiopia and the democracy of Liberia remained outside formal European control. The transition from an "informal empire" of control through economic say-so to direct command took the course of a "scramble" for territory by the nations of Europe. Great britain tried not to play a office in this early scramble, being more of a trading empire rather than a colonial empire; all the same, it before long became clear it had to proceeds its own African empire to maintain the balance of ability.

Every bit French, Belgian and Portuguese activity in the lower Congo River region threatened to undermine orderly penetration of tropical Africa, the Berlin Briefing of 1884-85 sought to regulate the competition betwixt the powers by defining "effective occupation" as the benchmark for international recognition of territorial claims, a formulation which necessitated routine recourse to armed strength against ethnic states and peoples.

Uk'southward 1882 military occupation of Egypt (itself triggered by concern over the Suez Canal) contributed to a preoccupation over securing control of the Nile valley, leading to the conquest of the neighboring Sudan in 1896–98 and confrontation with a French military trek at Fashoda (September 1898).

In 1899 Great britain completed its takeover of what is today South Africa. This had begun with the annexation of the Cape in 1795 and continued with the conquest of the Boer Republics in the late nineteenth century, following the Second Boer War. Cecil Rhodes was the pioneer of British expansion north into Africa with his privately owned British Southward Africa Visitor. Rhodes expanded into the country north of South Africa and established Rhodesia. Rhodes' dream of a railway connecting Greatcoat Town to Alexandria passing through a British Africa covering the continent is what led to his company'southward pressure on the government for further expansion into Africa.

British gains in southern and East Africa prompted Rhodes and Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner, Britain's High Commissioner in Due south Africa, to urge a "Cape-to-Cairo" empire linking past rail the strategically important Suez Canal to the mineral-rich S, though German occupation of Tanganyika prevented its realization until the end of World War I. In 1903 the All Red Line telegraph arrangement communicated with the major parts of the Empire.

Paradoxically, United kingdom—the staunch advocate of gratuitous merchandise—emerged in 1914 with non only the largest overseas empire thank you to her long-continuing presence in Bharat, but also the greatest gains in the "scramble for Africa," reflecting her advantageous position at its inception. Between 1885 and 1914 United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland took nearly 30 percent of Africa's population nether her control, compared to 15 percent for French republic, 9 percent for Federal republic of germany, 7 percentage for Belgium and 1 percentage for Italy. Nigeria lonely contributed xv million subjects, more than than in the whole of French Due west Africa or the entire German language colonial empire.

Home rule in white-settler colonies

Britain's empire had already begun its transformation into the mod Commonwealth with the extension of dominion status to the already cocky-governing colonies of Canada (1867), Commonwealth of australia (1901), New Zealand (1907), Newfoundland (1907), and the newly-created Union of South Africa (1910). Leaders of the new states joined with British statesmen in periodic Colonial (from 1907, Purple) Conferences, the first of which was held in London in 1887.

The foreign relations of the dominions were all the same conducted through the Strange Office of the Uk: Canada created a Department of External Affairs in 1909, but diplomatic relations with other governments continued to exist channeled through the Governors-General, Dominion Loftier Commissioners in London (commencement appointed by Canada in 1880 and by Australia in 1910) and British legations abroad. Britain's declaration of war in World War I applied to all the dominions.

The dominions enjoyed substantial freedom in their adoption of foreign policy where this did not explicitly conflict with British interests: Canada's Liberal government negotiated a bilateral gratis-trade Reciprocity Agreement with the The states in 1911, but went down to defeat by the Bourgeois opposition.

In defense, the dominions' original handling every bit office of a single majestic war machine and naval structure proved unsustainable as United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland faced new commitments in Europe and the claiming of an emerging German High Seas Fleet after 1900. In 1909 information technology was decided that the dominions should have their ain navies, reversing an 1887 agreement that the so Australasian colonies should contribute to the Royal Navy in return for the permanent stationing of a squadron in the region.

The bear on of the Showtime World War

British Empire memorial for the First World War in the Brussels cathedral

The aftermath of World War I saw the terminal major extension of British rule, with Britain gaining control through League of Nations Mandates in Palestine and Iraq after the plummet of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East, equally well equally in the former High german colonies of Tanganyika, South-West Africa (now Namibia) and New Guinea (the last 2 actually under South African and Australian rule respectively). Britain's Palestine Mandate, inspired by the Balfour Declaration of 1917, committed Britain to establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine. This was only one-half-heartedly implemented due to the opposition of Palestinian Arabs and attacks by Jewish terrorist gangs. There is little dubiety, though, that many involved in acquiring the Mandate of Palestine, including Full general Edmund Allenby (1861-1936) thought that Britain had a special part to play in the Center Due east, peradventure every bit God's agent in the restoration of Israel. Thus, Great britain's war-time interest in the Middle East had, for many, a Biblical dimension (Phillips, 256).

The British zones of occupation in the German Rhineland after World War I and West Germany after Globe State of war 2 were not considered function of the empire.

Although Uk emerged among the war'south victors and the empire's dominion expanded into new areas, the heavy costs of the war undermined her capacity to maintain the vast empire. The British had suffered millions of casualties and liquidated assets at an alarming rate, which led to debt accumulation, upending of uppercase markets and manpower deficiencies in the staffing of far-flung imperial posts in Asia and the African colonies. Nationalist sentiment grew in both sometime and new Imperial territories, fueled by pride at majestic troops' participation in the war and the grievance felt by many not-white ex-servicemen at the racial discrimination they had encountered during their service to the empire.

The 1920s saw a rapid transformation of dominion status. Although the dominions had no formal phonation in declaring state of war in 1914, each was included separately amongst the signatories of the 1919 peace Treaty of Versailles, which had been negotiated by a British-led united empire delegation. In 1922 dominion reluctance to support British military action confronting Turkey influenced Britain'due south decision to seek a compromise settlement.

The Balfour Declaration of 1926 provided the Dominions the right to be considered equal to Uk, rather than subordinate; an agreement that had the result of a shared Crown that operates independently in each realm rather than a unitary British Crown under which all the Dominions were secondary. The monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution, although it has ofttimes been called British since this time (in both legal and common linguistic communication) for reasons historical, political, and of convenience. The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act, 1927 was the first indication of this shift in law, further elaborated in the Statute of Westminster, 1931. Each dominion was henceforth to be equal in status to Britain herself, gratuitous of British legislative interference and autonomous in international relations. The dominions department created within the Colonial Office in 1907 was upgraded in 1925 to a separate Dominions Part and given its own secretary of land in 1930.

Map showing British Empire in the 1920s, colored cerise

Canada led the way, becoming the starting time dominion to conclude an international treaty entirely independently (1923) and obtaining the appointment (1928) of a British Loftier Commissioner in Ottawa, thereby separating the administrative and diplomatic functions of the governor-general and catastrophe the latter'south dissonant role as the representative of the head of state and of the British Government. Canada's first permanent embassy to a foreign country opened in Washington, D.C. in 1927. Australia followed in 1940.

Egypt, formally independent from 1922 but bound to United kingdom by treaty until 1936 (and under partial occupation until 1956), similarly severed all constitutional links with Britain. Iraq, which became a British Protectorate in 1922, also gained complete independence ten years afterwards in 1932.

The end of British dominion in Republic of ireland

An Anglo-Irish War memorial in Dublin

Despite Irish gaelic abode rule (merely not Irish constitutional independence) being guaranteed nether the Third Irish Home Dominion Act in 1914, the onset of Earth State of war I delayed its implementation. On Easter Monday 1916, an initially unsuccessful armed insurgence was staged in Dublin by a mixed group of nationalists, including Michael Collins. After his release from prison house in 1919, Collins led Irish guerrillas, known equally the Irish gaelic Republican Army in a military campaign against British rule. The ensuing Anglo-Irish gaelic War ended in 1921 with a stalemate and the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. The treaty divided Republic of ireland into two states, near of the island (26 counties) became the Irish Complimentary State, an independent rule nation inside the Commonwealth of Nations, while the six counties in the northward with a largely loyalist, Protestant community remained a part of the Uk as Northern Ireland.

In 1948 Ireland became a republic, fully independent from the Great britain, and withdrew from the Commonwealth. Ireland's Constitution claimed the six counties of Northern Republic of ireland equally a part of the Republic of Ireland until 1998. The issue over whether Northern Ireland should remain in the United Kingdom or join the Commonwealth of Ireland has divided Northern Ireland's people and led to a long and bloody conflict betwixt republicans (Catholic) and loyalists (or Unionists)(Protestant) known every bit "the Troubles." Nevertheless, the Good Friday Agreement of 1998 brought about a ceasefire between most of the major organizations on both sides, creating hope for a peaceful resolution.

Decolonization and decline

Mahatma Gandhi, i of the leaders of the Indian independence movement

The rise of anti-colonial nationalist movements in the subject territories and the changing economical state of affairs of the globe in the first one-half of the twentieth century challenged an imperial power now increasingly preoccupied with bug nearer habitation.

The empire'due south end began with the onset of the 2nd World State of war. When the Japanese captured Singapore in 1942 it showed the colonies that the British Empire was not invincible and that it would be impossible for the status quo to be restored afterwards the cease of the war. A deal was reached between the British regime and the Indian independence motion, whereby the Indians would cooperate and remain loyal during the war, after which they would be granted independence. Following India's lead, virtually all of Britain's other colonies would become contained over the next two decades.

The end of empire gathered pace after Great britain's efforts during Earth War II left the country all but exhausted and found its quondam allies disinclined to support the colonial status quo. Economic crisis in 1947 fabricated many realize that the Labour government of Cloudless Attlee should abandon Britain's endeavour to retain all of its overseas territories. The empire was increasingly regarded as an unnecessary drain on public finances by politicians and civil servants, if not the full general public.

Britain's declaration of hostilities against Germany in September 1939 did not automatically commit the dominions. All the dominions except Australia and Republic of ireland issued their own declarations of state of war. The Irish Gratis State had negotiated the removal of the Royal Navy from the Treaty Ports the year before, and chose to remain legally neutral throughout the war. Commonwealth of australia went to war nether the British annunciation.

Globe War II fatally undermined Uk's already weakened commercial and financial leadership and heightened the importance of the dominions and the U.s.a. as a source of armed services assistance. Australian prime government minister John Curtin's unprecedented activity (1942) in successfully demanding the remember for home service of Australian troops earmarked for the defense of British-held Burma demonstrated that rule governments could no longer be expected to subordinate their ain national interests to British strategic perspectives. Curtin had written in a national newspaper the year before that Australia should look to the The states for protection rather than Britain.

After the war, Australia and New Zealand joined with the United States in the ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, United States) regional security treaty in 1951 (although the U.S. repudiated its commitments to New Zealand following a 1985 dispute over port access for nuclear vessels). Great britain'southward pursuit (from 1961) and attainment (1973) of European Customs membership weakened the old commercial ties to the dominions, catastrophe their privileged access to the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland market.

In the Caribbean, Africa, Asia and the Pacific, mail-war decolonization was achieved with almost unseemly haste in the face of increasingly powerful (and sometimes mutually conflicting) nationalist movements, with Great britain rarely fighting to retain any territory. Britain'due south limitations were exposed to a humiliating degree by the Suez Crisis of 1956 in which the United States opposed British, French and Israeli intervention in Egypt, seeing it equally a doomed adventure likely to jeopardize American interests in the Middle East.

The independence of Bharat in 1947 concluded a forty-year struggle by the Indian National Congress, firstly for self-regime and later for total sovereignty, though the country'due south partition into India and Pakistan entailed violence costing hundreds of thousands of lives. The credence past U.k., and the other dominions, of India'southward adoption of republican condition (1950) is now taken as the start of the modern Commonwealth.

Singapore became independent in two stages. The British did non believe that Singapore would be large plenty to defend itself against others lonely. Therefore, Singapore was joined with Malaya, Sarawak and North Borneo to form Malaysia upon independence from the Empire. This short-lived union was dissolved in 1965 when Singapore left Malaysia and achieved consummate independence.

Burma achieved independence (1948) outside the Commonwealth; Burma being the offset colony to sever all ties with the British; Ceylon (1948) and Malaya (1957) within information technology. U.k.'southward Palestine Mandate concluded (1948) in withdrawal and open warfare between the territory'southward Jewish and Arab populations. In the Mediterranean, a guerrilla war waged by Greek Cypriot advocates of wedlock with Greece concluded (1960) in an contained Cyprus, although Great britain did retain two military bases—Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

The end of U.k.'southward empire in Africa came with exceptional rapidity, ofttimes leaving the newly-independent states ill-equipped to deal with the challenges of sovereignty: Ghana's independence (1957) subsequently a ten-year nationalist political campaign was followed by that of Nigeria and Somaliland (1960), Sierra Leone and Tanganyika (1961), Uganda (1962), Kenya and Zanzibar (1963), The Gambia (1965), Botswana (formerly Bechuanaland) and Lesotho (formerly Basutoland) (1966) and Swaziland (1968).

British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was complicated by the region's white settler populations: Kenya had already provided an case in the Mau Mau Uprising of violent conflict exacerbated past white landownership and reluctance to concede majority dominion. White minority rule in South Africa remained a source of bitterness within the Commonwealth until the Union of S Africa left the Commonwealth in 1961.

Although the white-dominated Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland concluded in the independence of Malawi (formerly Nyasaland) and Zambia (the erstwhile Northern Rhodesia) in 1964, Southern Rhodesia's white minority (a cocky-governing colony since 1923) declared independence with their Unilateral Proclamation of Independence rather than submit to equality with black Africans. The support of South Africa's apartheid government kept the Rhodesian regime in identify until 1979, when understanding was reached on majority rule in an independent Zimbabwe.

Most of United kingdom's Caribbean territories opted for eventual split independence after the failure of the Westward Indies Federation (1958–1962): Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago (1962) were followed into statehood by Barbados (1966) and the smaller islands of the eastern Caribbean area (1970s and 1980s). Britain's Pacific dependencies such as the Gilbert Islands (which had seen the last attempt at human being colonization within the Empire—the Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme) underwent a similar process of decolonization in the latter decades.

Equally decolonization and the Cold War were gathering momentum during the 1950s, an uninhabited rock in the Atlantic Body of water, Rockall, became the last territorial acquisition of the Great britain. Concerns that the Soviet Marriage might use the isle to spy on a British missile test prompted the Royal Navy to land a party and officially claim the rock in the name of the Queen in 1955. In 1972 the Isle of Rockall Human activity formally incorporated the island into the U.k..

In 1982, Great britain's resolve to defend her remaining overseas territories was put to the examination when Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, acting on a long-continuing merits that dated dorsum to the Spanish Empire. United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland's ultimately successful armed forces response to liberate the islands during the ensuing Falklands State of war prompted headlines in the U.S. press that "the Empire strikes back," and was viewed by many to accept contributed to reversing the down trend in the United kingdom's status as a globe power.^[two]

In 1997 Britain's last major overseas territory, Hong Kong, became a Special Administrative Region of the People's Commonwealth of China nether the terms of the Sino-British Joint Proclamation agreed some thirteen years prior. The remaining British overseas territories, the Democracy of Nations and the enduring personal unions with the Republic Realms constitute the legacy of the British Empire.

While it is definitely true to say that a reason for the dissolution of the British Empire was that United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland was in no state, financially or militarily, to defend or keep together her empire, information technology must also be noted that Cold War politics besides played their office, especially with regard to United kingdom'southward African possessions. The United States and the Soviet Spousal relationship were competing for international favor, and due to the general global liberalism in the world in the wake of the Second World State of war, imperialism became unfashionable. The U.S. and the Soviet Union, anxious to win allies and commercial opportunities, quickly gave support to nationalists in the colonies to appear to exist backing 'freedom' every bit opposed to the 'repression' of imperial rule. It is also said that equally role of America'southward agreement to bring together in the 2d World War was a demand that the European Powers (mostly U.k., but it is important to remember that French republic all the same owned a big empire) requite up their imperial possessions. Phillips (2005) argues that Britain also failed to modernize her industrial base of operations, which was congenital on coal. While Britain had led the Industrial Revolution, information technology had continued to rely on its existing technology, rather than continue to innovate. British inventions, likewise, had mainly been by "skilled craftsmen and engineers, not men of science" (15) and these were mainly employed past small, family unit-run firms. Thus, Britain failed to develop the "inquiry laboratories [backed by big-scale] iron and steel enterprises," unlike Germany and the U.S. Britain also realized likewise late that oil was replacing coal as the primary source of energy.

Legacy

The legacy of the British Empire includes many stable democracies, ofttimes modeled on the Westminster Parliament. English Common police remains the footing of legal systems throughout the former colonies. Schools, colleges, and universities founded by the British take developed into institutions of excellence. Protestantism, with its accompanying secular values such as the dignity and rights of the individual, has been planted widely. The many railways that were constructed improved communications and enabled people to develop a sense of national identity also as a feeling of belonging to the wider civilized globe. English remains a lingua franca, often popular fifty-fifty where it is not an official language (every bit in India). The greatest legacy is probably the Commonwealth of Nations a voluntary association of 53 quondam colonies who desire to maintain shut ties with U.k. and with each other. The head of the Democracy is the Queen. She is even so the Head of Country of sixteen Commonwealth realms such as Canada, Commonwealth of australia, and Barbados.

See also

• Republic of Nations
• British Eastward Bharat Visitor

Notes

1. ↑ Adams, James Truslow. "On the Term 'British Empire." American Historical Review 22 (1927), 485–489; Armitage 174-175.
2. ↑ Lawrence James, The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (New York, NY: St. Martin's Griffin, 1997, ISBN 031216985X), 629.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Overviews

• Bryant, Arthur. The History of U.k. and the British Peoples. 3 vols. London: Collins, 1984–1990. ISBN 000217412X
• Ferguson, Niall. Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Social club and the Lessons for Global Powers. New York: Basic Books, 2003. ISBN 0465023282
• Hyam, Ronald. Britain's Purple Century, 1815-1914: A Study of Empire and Expansion. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 033399311X
• James, Lawrence. The Rising and Fall of the British Empire. New York: St. Martin'southward Press, 1997. ISBN 031216985X
• Judd, Denis. Empire: The British Imperial Experience, From 1765 to the Present. New York: Basic Books, 1996. ISBN 0465019528
• Lloyd, Trevor Owen. The British Empire, 1558-1995. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0198731337
• Louis, William. Roger (ed.). The Oxford History of the British Empire. 5 vols. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1998-1999. ISBN 0198205627 (5. 1); ISBN 0198205635 (v. 2); ISBN 0198205651 (v. 3); ISBN 0198205643 (five. four); ISBN 019820566X (v. 5).
• Marshall, Peter James (ed.). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0521432111
• Olson, James Southward. and Robert Due south. Shadle. Historical Dictionary of the British Empire. Westport, CT: Greenwood Printing, 1996. ISBN 0313279179
• Rose, J. Holland, A. P. Newton and E. A. Benians (eds.). The Cambridge History of the British Empire. 9 vols. Cambridge: The Cambridge University Printing, 1929–1961.
• Smith, Simon C. British Imperialism 1750-1970. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 052159930X

Specialized scholarly studies

• Andrews, Kenneth R. Trade, Plunder and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire 1480–1630. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. ISBN 0521276985
• Armitage, David. The Ideological Origins of the British Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0521789788
• Armitage, David. "Greater Britain: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis?" American Historical Review 104 (1999): 427–445.
• Armitage, David (ed.). Theories of Empire, 1450–1800. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 1998. ISBN 0860785165
• Barone, Charles A. Marxist Thought on Imperialism: Survey and Critique. London: Macmillan, 1985. ISBN 0873322916
• Bailyn, Bernard and Philip D. Morgan (eds.). Strangers within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire. Chapel Loma, NC: University of Northward Carolina, 1991. ISBN 0807843113
• Barker, Sir Ernest. The Ideas and Ideals of the British Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1941.
• Baumgart, Winfried. Imperialism: The Idea and Reality of British and French Colonial Expansion, 1880-1914. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982. ISBN 0198730411
• Bayly, C. A. Royal Top: The British Empire and the Globe, 1780-1831. New York: Longman, 2004. ISBN 0582494389
• Blaut, J. Yard. The Colonizers' Model of the World. London: The Guildford Press, 1993. ISBN 0898623480
• Boehmer, Elleke (ed.). Empire Writing: An Anthology of Colonial Literature, 1870-1918. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0192832654
• Brantlinger, Patrick. Dominion of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830-1914. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988. ISBN 0801497671
• Brooks, Chris and Peter Faulkner (eds.). The White Man'southward Burdens: An Anthology of British Poetry of the Empire. Exeter: Exeter University Press, 1996. ISBN 0859894509
• Constantine, Stephen. "British Emigration to the Empire-democracy since 1880: from Overseas Settlement to Diaspora?" Periodical of Imperial and Republic History [Smashing Britain] 31(2) (2003): 16-35. ISSN 03086534
• Darby, Philip. The Three Faces of Imperialism: British and American Approaches to Asia and Africa, 1870-1970. New Oasis, CT: Yale Academy Press, 1987. ISBN 0300037481
• Doyle, Michael W. Empires. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986. ISBN 080149334X
• Elliott, J.H. Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Espana in America 1492-1830. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006. ISBN 0300114311
• Gould, Eliga H. The Persistence of Empire: British Political Civilization in the Age of the American Revolution. Chapel Loma, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. ISBN 0807848468
• Harlow, Vincent T. The Founding of the Second British Empire, 1763–1793. 2 vols. London and New York, Longman Dark-green, 1952–1964.
• Heinlein, Frank. British Government Policy and Decolonisation, 1945-1963: Scrutinising the Official Mind. London: Routledge, 2002. ISBN 0714652202
• Hyam, Ronald. Empire and Sexuality: The British Feel. Manchester: Manchester Academy Printing, 1990. ISBN 0719025044
• Ingram, Edward. The British Empire as a Earth Power. Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 2001. ISBN 0714651516
• Johnson, Robert. British Imperialism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. ISBN 0333947266
• Kennedy, Paul M. The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery. London: Humanity Books, 1986. ISBN 1573922781
• Kenny, Kevin (ed.). Republic of ireland and the British Empire. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Printing, 2004. ISBN 0199251835
• Knorr, Klaus E. British Colonial Theories 1570–1850. Toronto: The University of Toronto Printing, 1944.
• Levine, Philippa (ed.). Gender and Empire. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0199249512
• McDevitt, Patrick F. May the Best Human being Win: Sport, Masculinity, and Nationalism in Not bad Britain and the Empire, 1880-1935. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. ISBN 1403965528
• Mehta, Uday Singh. Liberalism and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought. Chicago: Academy of Chicago Printing, 1999. ISBN 0226518817
• Morgan, Philip D. and Sean Hawkins (ed.). Blackness Experience and the Empire. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Printing, 2004. ISBN 019926029X
• Morris, Jan. The Spectacle of Empire: Way, Effect and Pax Britannica. London and Boston, MA: Faber and Faber, 1982. ISBN 0571119573
• Phillips, Kevin. American Theocracy. New York: Viking, 2005. ISBN 067003486X
• Pocock, John. G. A. "The Limits and Divisions of British History: In Search of the Unknown Subject area." American Historical Review 87 (1982): 311–336.
• Porter, Andrew. Religion Versus Empire?: British Protestant Missionaries and Overseas Expansion, 1700-1914. Manchester: Manchester University Printing, 2004. ISBN 0719028221
• Potter, Simon J. News and the British World: The Emergence of an Majestic Press System. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0199265127
• Rüger, Jan. "Nation, Empire and Navy: Identity Politics in the United Kingdom 1887-1914." Past & Nowadays 185 (2004): 159-187. ISSN 0031-2746
• Spurr, David. The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial Discourse in Journalism, Travel Writing and Royal Administration. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993. ISBN 0822313170
• Trollope, Joanna. Britannia'south Daughters: Women of the British Empire. London: Hutchinson, 1983. ISBN 0091539706
• Wilson, Kathleen (ed.). A New Imperial History: Culture, Identity and Modernity in Britain and the Empire, 1660-1840. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004. ISBN 0521810272

External links

All links retrieved Feb 11, 2022.

• The British Empire - BBC
• All-encompassing information on the British Empire
• The British Empire - An Cyberspace Gateway by Dr. Jane Samson

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